Waerea Study Resources

Cultural Context

Māori Values and Beliefs

We present our interpretations related to Māori values and beliefs that are relevant to assisted dying. There is not one definition for the following values and beliefs. However, we explain the unique and varied beliefs and values that have been highlighted in our Waerea study findings. Journal articles specific to palliative care and end-of-life care accompany each value or belief to enable further reading. This is not intended to be an extensive list but a small sample of what is available.

Spiritual Care and Safety

Spiritual care is present at every stage of an illness including, when someone needs palliative care (when the illness is advanced) and at the time of death and afterwards. Whānau (family, including extended family) often have their own spiritual beliefs, and they practice those beliefs in a variety of different ways. Some people follow their tribal beliefs around wairuatanga (spirituality) while others may follow religious denominations such as, Christian beliefs and practices or a mixture of both. Some whānau observe multiple spiritual practices including karakia (prayers, incantations, chants); waiata (singing/hymns); and the use of holy water for cleansing places, spaces, and objects.

Wairuatanga (Māori spirituality) cannot be defined because it is too deep, vast and all encompassing. Indeed, experts have shared how wairuatanga cannot be contained, comprehended or explained. However, we acknowledge it is informed by traditional tribal beliefs and practices passed down by tūpuna (ancestors including deceased grandparents). Wairuatanga encompasses a deep, vast holistic spiritual system that deserves a more in-depth examination than we can provide here. For the purposes of this resource, we describe wairuatanga as encompassing absolutely everything including whakapapa (genealogy), cosmology, philosophy, history, land (earth, sea, water, sky) and every living thing on the planet. Wairuatanga can include diverse spiritual beliefs and practices, such as tribal customs, and can also embrace religious beliefs and practices including Christianity, Buddhism and Taoism to name a few.

Belief and participation in wairuatanga mean that whānau (family, including extended family) can trace their whakapapa (genealogy) to Atua (supreme God and Divine beings) who have influence over particular domains such as the sea, forests, plants, water systems and everything that exists above the earth. Atua are invisible to most people but they can take particular forms and can send signs and communicate in various ways (dreams, signs, and symbolic appearances); tūpuna can also provide guidance through dreams and visitations. Tohunga (spiritual practitioners) and matakite (people who can see through the ārai (veil) to those who have passed on) provide healing support by passing on important information or messages to kaumātua (elders of status) and whānau.

It is important to note that not all whānau have been able to retain tribal knowledge of wairuatanga or participate in wairua (spirit) based practices. Nor do all whānau follow religious based practices. However, most whānau have some form of spiritual belief system that has been influenced by their Indigenous whakapapa and culture. For some people, spiritual care could mean spending time in nature, walking through the ngāhere (forest) or swimming in the moana (ocean) or awa (river). Being one with Papatūānuku (Earth Mother) and feeling the mauri (life force, vital essence) that lives inside every living thing can be restorative and healing. Closely connected with te taiao (natural environment) is the spiritual care provided by rongoā practitioners (natural healers who offer Indigenous forms of massage, physical healing and plant remedies) as well as matakite (spiritual healers and seers) and tohunga (experts in wairua healing and lifting tapu).

Tapu (sacred, profound, restricted) is a word that carries layers of meanings. It can be described as a state of being. There can be consequences for not respecting the power of tapu. The term is used in different ways to explain spiritual restrictions that guide human behaviour and it also encompasses the profound and the sacred. Tapu governs the realm of protection providing safeguards to ensure the integrity of people, spaces, places and objects are maintained. Tapu can apply to the protection of the living and the deceased as well as specific places and spaces imbued with energetic forces associated with illness, death and the deceased; therefore, tapu is attributed to rooms where people have died, vehicles that have transported tūpāpaku (bodies) and urupā (cemeteries), for example.

Noa is a term that refers to the neutralising of tapu (sacred, profound, restricted) – it returns something tapu into the ordinary or a non-restricted state. Noa restores balance by removing or neutralising tapu. One common way to neutralise or remove tapu is through karakia (prayers, incantations, chants) and some people use water to sprinkle on people, rooms, or objects to spiritually cleanse or remove tapu using cleansing rituals such as, whakawaatea and whakanoa. Hākari is another method for lifting tapu from mourners (the ritual of shared kai takes place after a tangihanga to remove tapu).

The term mauri means energy life force – it is an animating life-giving principle that exists in tangata (people), whenua (land), animals, rākau (plants), wai (water), taonga (treasured objects) and other objects. Māori believe mauri (life force, vital essence) is a direct source that comes from the Creator; it was present in the beginning when Papatūānuku (Earth Mother) separated from Ranginui (Sky Father). Mauri was instilled into every living thing. From the time of Te Kore (the realm of potential) through Te Pō (the realm of becoming) and into Te Ao Marama (the world of light), mauri flourished.
In healthy people the mauri is vital and strong. As people’s health declines their mauri becomes diminished and eventually it withdraws when someone dies. When people have unbearable physical suffering, their mauri is affected and the life force withdraws from them. It is to be expected that the physical, emotional and wairua state is affected as everything is interconnected.

Mana is the status or prestige and spiritual power that an individual or a whānau (family, including extended family) possesses. For example, within their own communities’ individuals may be recognised as rangatira (leaders) and bestowed with great mana. Everyone has mana. Māori believe:
  1. People are born with mana (inherited from the merits and mana of the ancestors).
  2. Mana is gained through an individual’s (whānau, iwi, hapū [sub-tribe]) aspirations and achievements across the life course.
  3. Others can attribute or give mana to another person (whānau, iwi [tribe], hapū [sub-tribe]).

Mana motuhake is a term that is used to describe a person’s autonomy and independence. In relation to assisted dying it references to a whanaunga (relative) being able to voluntarily choose to have an assisted death. To do so the person has to know about assisted dying and they need to know where to seek information to make an informed decision. They may wish to contact the Assisted Dying Service Team themselves without involving their whānau.

The person also needs to have trust in their primary healthcare provider (General Practitioner, specialist, palliative care team, for example) so they can talk openly and freely to them about their wish to explore assisted dying or to be referred to the Assisted Dying Service.

Naturally, whānau (family, including extended family) are important kaitiaki (guardians, protectors) on this pathway as their support in seeking information or helping to organise a healthcare appointment for the person to speak to a healthcare professional about accessing the Assisted Dying Service can be invaluable.

Mana motuhake also means that the person who has a terminal illness is free from pressure – they must not feel pressured in any way to decide about assisted dying. Māori who choose to have an assisted death (based on the Waerea study findings) do so as an expression of their own mana (status, prestige spiritual power), dignity and self-determination to end their unbearable pain and suffering; they want to have control over their end of life and to die on their own terms.

Whānau have an important job to ensure their end of life pathway and assisted dying experience is safe, culturally meaningful, appropriate and mana enhancing.

Rangatiratanga refers to the authority a person, whānau (family, including extended family), iwi (tribe) or hapū (sub-tribe) has to be self-determining. Even kaumātua (elders of status) and people who are recognised for their great leadership and mana (status, prestige spiritual power) may need help at the end of life.

Despite being well loved by their whānau and communities, some kaumātua need the support of healthcare professionals when they become ill. However, they may choose to try to protect their whānau from being burdened with this end of life responsibility.

Some kaumātua may openly refuse the support offered by their whānau, or they may valiantly try to hold on to their independence, as a way of loving and protecting their whānau. In truth, whānau tell us that caring for their ill and dying kaumātua is an honour and a privilege. It is good to be aware of these related, and yet different perspectives among whānau.

Tikanga are cultural customs passed down generation by generation; they are taught verbally and also by observing others and doing. End of life caregiving tikanga and death customs vary amongst whānau (family including extended family), iwi (tribes) and hapū (sub-tribes). Tikanga have been adapted to suit contemporary times and needs specific to circumstances and resources and reflect the depth of cultural knowledge available to whānau.

Tangi (cry, weep)

Tikanga (customs) associated with tangihanga is recognised in the expression of emotions – when people tangi (cry) it encourages whānau pani (bereaved families) to openly allow their tears to flow and their heartache to be shared with others. Being together when news of a terminal illness emerges or at the time someone dies or following a death can be very comforting and healing; sharing tears, love words and memories helps to lift the burden. Wailing and crying are all acceptable forms of expressing loss, as is the falling of mucous from the nose; these are considered normal and healthy forms of expressing mamae (emotional pain) and pōuritanga (sadness) associated with the death of a cherished whanaunga (relative).

Manaakitanga (kindness, generosity, hospitality)

Aroha (love, care, compassion) Among other things, aroha encompasses love, compassion, affection, empathy, respect, caring and so much more. It is a relational term filled with spiritual meaning and practical application. It is more than a state of emotional feeling because it has an active application. In one sense whānau (family, including extended family) activate, perform and show their aroha in different ways.

Aroha is grounded in whakapapa (genealogy), mauri (life force, vital essence) and wairua (spirit).  Aroha resides in our first love story and our first bereavement story – both involving Papatūānuku (Earth Mother) and Ranginui (Sky Father). The pair were locked in a loving embrace where their children lived snuggled between them in darkness; their son Tane separated them allowing light to flourish. Grief that emerges from the separation of a loved one reflects aroha and longing expressed in tangi (crying, weeping) as well as a host of physical and spiritual responses that accompany deep loss.

A perfect example of aroha can be seen demonstrated at the end of a person’s life when whānau place the person who has an incurable terminal illness at the centre of their attention and care until they die, and immediately afterwards. Aroha requires strength to advocate on behalf of the person who is navigating the palliative care and the Kaitiakitanga Assisted Dying Pathway.

Aroha comes with the responsibility to protect people from harm, and to set boundaries and uphold mana (status, prestige spiritual power), mauri and protective tikanga.  Whānau demonstrate this by conducting respectful and dignified care of the loved person’s tūpāpaku (body) and wairua. 

When we unpack the term aroha, ‘aro’ means to face toward, and to focus on or pay attention while ‘ha’ means the breath or the essence of life. In Māori death customs whānau place their attention on the person who has an incurable terminal illness until they take their last breath. 

Whānau provide aroha on the Kaitiakitanga Assisted Dying Pathway throughout all three phases. For example, in Phase One: Hinauri whānau perform aroha by finding information about assisted dying and they organise hui (meetings) and they discuss assisted dying openly as a whānau. Aroha is when everyone in the whānau understands the person’s decision and supports those in the whānau who may not agree with it or who are upset. In Phase Two: Hina-te-Pō aroha is enacted when the whānau attend the procedure in a mana enhancing way by supporting the person just before, and on the day, they die, as well as caring for whānau who are grieving.

Awhi (physical presence, emotional and spiritual support) Whānau come together to be with, and to care for, the dying person. Awhi can include whānau companioning the unwell person or sharing stories to uplift their wairua (spirit) as this brings comfort to them and the whānau. Upholding the requests and wishes of dying loved one and providing caregiving at end of life are all expressions of awhi and aroha.

Whānau manaaki (caring for the ill and each other) Whānau manaaki are families who care for each other and especially the person with an incurable terminal illness. When whānau gather together and support each other, they experience the power of whānau manaaki – it is very healing. When whānau bring their love and kindness, and they pool resources while observing tikanga (customs) that enable them to care for an ill or dying person, and each other, they demonstrate aroha in action.

Whānau manaaki also includes self-care as managing the responsibility of providing end of life care to a whanaunga (relative) who is also having an assisted death can demand a lot of time and energy.

Whanaungatanga (a sense of family connection)

Whanaungatanga is the building of relationships, kinship and connections. It is an important tikanga which is embedded in Māori relationships and Māori society. Whanaungatanga strengthens and comforts people who have a terminal illness and helps them to let go and leave their physical body at the end of life. Whanaungatanga is carried out after death to carry out the wishes of the deceased loved one and supports healing of the whānau pani (bereaved family) who have been left behind.

For this resource we interpret kawa as the actions and processes of ceremonial customs. We have gathered information about some of the kawa used around assisted dying from our Waerea Study findings. This list is not intended to be extensive; however, it offers some understanding about the kawa used at the end of life.

Rongoā (traditional Māori medicine)

Rongoā is natural medicine, healing and treatments. It supports health and wellbeing within a cultural and spiritual framework of emotional, physical, spiritual, social and environmental wellbeing. Rongoā means to treat, to preserve, to apply medicines, and to find a solution to a problem. The natural and holistic methods Māori practitioners use are varied. Rongoā has many forms; it can be anything that helps increase energy, restore balance, and bring oranga (wellness, wellbeing) to mind, body, and spirit.

The following list contains a broad range of rongoā healing forms for an adult or kaumātua (elders of status), and each other experiencing illness:

  • Te Reo (Māori language)
  • Karakia (Prayers, incantations, chants)
  • Karanga (call traditions)
  • Whaikōrero (Speech making)
  • Whakakata (Humour)
  • Kai (food) and wai (beverages)
  • Haka (traditional action dance)
  • Waiata (To sing/hymn)
  • Kanikani (Dancing)
  • Tāniko (Weave, embroider)
  • Rongoā rākau (Wai, kai, balms, inhalations, teas, infusions, and baths)
  • Matakite (“Scanning and assessments”; talking with tūpuna)
  • Kāhui takitini (Artwork; panel dragon painting)
  • Mirimiri (Massage)
  • Tioata (Crystals)
  • Hui – Korerorero (Preparation, planning, resolving problems, negotiating end-of-life issues).


While living with an illness or receiving palliative care services, rongoā healing can provide comfort to the hinengaro (mind), tinana (physical being), and wairua (spiritual dimension) of those who are ill and dying, as well as their whānau (family, including extended family).

Karakia (Prayers, incantations, chants)

Karakia (prayers, incantations, chants) are used for everything – to bring comfort to kaumātua (elders of status) and their whānau (family, including extended family), to petition the spiritual realm for support, guidance, and to clear tapu (sacred, profound, restricted), lift fear and anxiety, to bring strength and clarity, and to assist with certain events that occur on the end of life journey.  Ancient spiritual customs (karakia [prayers, incantations, chants], waiata [to sing/hymn], karanga [call], mihimihi [speech of greeting/tribute], for example) help to lift the pain associated with deep loss, it is used to help the wairua (spirit) to depart.

Waiata (singing)

Waiata (singing) often takes place as someone is dying and during tangihanga (Māori funeral). Whānau will often speak lovingly to their whanaunga (relative) as they are dying, encouraging them to go.

Tangihanga (Māori funeral customs)

Tangihanga is one of the most important tikanga (customs) and kawa within Māori society. It has strong cultural imperatives and protocols, and is a time to mourn, cry, share stories, and uphold the rights and wishes of the deceased.

At a tangihanga, you can see the heart of iwi (tribe), hapū (sub-tribe) and whānau (family, including extended family) culture in action, where each observes their own tikanga. In former times, tangihanga decisions belonged to the iwi or hapū; however, given the diversity of Māori today and the independence of the individual, many people suffering a life-limiting illness are discussing their preferences or making their own arrangements long before they die, which can be a great help to whānau.

In addition, some are choosing to have tangihanga that are not strictly traditional. Many whānau continue to uphold their traditional tangihanga customs. Some whānau prefer to combine aspects of traditional tangihanga and non-traditional funeral practices, depending on their preferences and circumstances, to accommodate their lived experiences and needs. Because assisted dying is new and it carries its own stigma some people/families may opt not to have a big tangihanga after an assisted death.

Caregiving of Tūpāpaku (body)

Spiritual and physical care runs across and through every aspect of caring for the tūpāpaku (body), taking care of its interment (burial or cremation) and carrying out ceremonies to farewell and remember the dead.

Often, people who are terminally ill will let their immediate whānau (family, including extended family) know what they want to happen to their tūpāpaku after they die; they may give instructions, or share their preferences for where their tūpāpaku will lie (for example, at home or on a marae), how long for, and where they will be mourned (tangihanga) and buried.

Many people who have a life-limiting illness have discussed with their whānau or funeral directors who will be officiating the death kawa, such as a minister or kaumātua (elders of status).

Lying in state during tangihanga is when whānau pani (bereaved family) or the whanaunga (relative) may arrange for the tūpāpaku to spend a night at their home, or one of the whānau homes, surrounded by their whānau.

The tūpāpaku is viewed, spoken to, sung to, and touched as if the person were still alive. This reflects the spiritual belief that the wairua stays with the tūpāpaku until it is interred (buried) or cremated. In modern times, these proceedings occur during the final days of tangihanga, before traveling to their marae or before the burial, and on the final day, the coffin is closed. Whānau pani draw strength and comfort from being with the tūpāpaku.

The tūpāpaku may also stay overnight at a non-ancestral marae near where the whanaunga lives, particularly if they are well known and have lived in the area for many years. This gives local people an opportunity to say goodbye to the person before they leave for their ancestral home, often some distance away. Every time the tūpāpaku is moved, karakia (prayers, incantations, chants) are said for the spiritual, emotional and physical care and protection of the tūpāpaku and the whānau pani.

Tangihanga Tikanga Journal Article: Moeke‐Maxwell, T., Robinson, J., & Gott, M. (2024). Pōuritanga: Whānau Māori experiences of end‐of‐life caregiving, death and tangihanga (funeral customs) during New Zealand’s COVID‐19 lockdowns. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 55(2), 287–301. read it here

Caregiving practices Journal article: Moeke-Maxwell, T., Wharemate, R., Black, S., Mason, K., Wiles, J., & Gott, M. (2018). Toku toa, he toa rangatira: A qualitative investigation of New Zealand Māori end of life care customs. International Journal of Indigenous Health, 13(2), 30–46. read it here

Manaakitanga, wairuatanga, awhi, whanaungatanga Journal Article: Moeke-Maxwell, T., Earp, R., Eldridge, V., & Smith, B. (2024). Ngā Tapuwae Ki Hawaiki Nui: Sacred Footsteps Home. In G. Garvey (Ed.), Indigenous and Tribal Peoples and Cancer (pp. 257–260). Springer. read it here

Wairuatanga article: Marsden, M., & Royal, Te. A. C. (2003). The Woven Universe: Selected writings of Rev. Māori Marsden (2nd ed.). Otaki: Estate of Rev. Maori Marsden.

Wairuatanga article: Valentine, H. (2022). Wairuatanga. In W. Waitoki & M. P. Levy (Eds.), Te Manu Kai i Te Mātauranga Indigenous Psychology in Aotearoa/New Zealand (2nd ed., pp. 155–169). American Psychological Association.